Hebron: what happened there - "A closer look at Hebron's 'Jewish community'"

Hebron: what happened there

• Abraham bought the Field of Machpelah as a burial plot for his family. Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob and Leah are all buried there
• David was anointed at Hebron as King of Israel. It was his capital for the first seven years of his reign
• Joab killed Abner here, and Absalom raised the banner of revolt against his father David
• King Herod built a lavish tomb over the Cave of Machpelah.

The Tomb of Abraham and Sarah

According to the Bible, Hebron is the burial place of Abraham and Sarah. Genesis 23:17-21 tells the story of Abraham's purchase of a cave, the Cave of Machpelah, for a tomb in which he and his descendents could be buried. He paid an exorbitant amount, so that his descendants would have the right of burial there forever. And indeed Abraham, Isaac andJacob were laid there to rest; so were the matriarch Rebecca and Jacob’s wife Leah. 

The Burial of Sarah

Recent excavations have uncovered a 9ft-thick city wall and fortified tower that dates to the Middle Bronze period, circa 1700 BC. Scholars say this is about the time when, according to the biblical story, Abraham came to the city.

Between the tower and the city wall, archaeologists have unearthed two stone-walled rooms that they believe date back to the period of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, whose 12 sons became the founders of the 12 tribes of ancient Israel. Artifacts found in the rooms include silver jewelry, bronze axe heads, two scarabs and the handle of a dagger.

David's Capital

The Upper Pool of David, from a 1937 photograph. This may be the site of
the  'pool of Hebron' over which David hanged the assassins of Ishbosheth

Hebron was King David's first capital city of Judah - see David's story at Bible People: David. It was also the site of David's anointing as King of all Israel (11 Samuel 5:1-3). The city reached its zenith in the early part of David's reign, serving as his capital for the first seven and a half years of his rule over Judea (II Samuel 2:1-4).

But some years after he came to power he established his new capital atJerusalem, which was more centrally located and easier to defend. But Hebron was still important. It was still regarded as a political and religious centre throughout the period of the monarchy. It became a Levitical city, that is a city for priests and Levites, as well as a haven of refuge.

It was at Hebron that the fearsome army general Joab killed Abner ben-Ner, and Absalom raised the banner of revolt against his father (11 Sam. 15:7-10). Rehoboam fortified Hebron, as well as many other places in the Judean mountains (II Ch. I I :10). It also served as an important administrative centre in the later period of the monarchy. Seals bearing the inscription ImIk hbrn  (to the king of Hebron) have been found stamped on jars in many sites in Judah.

After the Exile

The Tomb of the Patriarchs, Hebron

The lower sections of the Tomb date from the time of Herod the Great

Jews settled in Hebron after their return from the Babylonian Exile (Nehemiah 11:25). In the early period of the Second Temple, the Edomites occupied the southern part of Judea, including Hebron. The Hasmoneans later wrested it from them, destroyed it, and burned down its walls (Ant. Bk. 12, 8:6). Herod erected many buildings in Hebron, including an imposing structure over the Cave of Machpelah with an outer wall modelled on that of the Temple Mount. It was made of huge blocks of stone, characteristic of the best Herodian masonry. 

A prominent church and monastery were later built in Hebron and the site became a centre of pilgrimage for Christians. The Arabic name of Hebron, "al-Khalil", meaning "the friend of God", is a significant indication of the reverence in which Abraham's name is held by Moslems. Abraham is revered as the original founder of the three great religious traditions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam.

Early 20th century photograph of Hebron

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King David and Hebron (extra information)

The Second Book of Samuel opens with David's lament over Saul and Jonathan and David's move to Hebron, the tribal and cultic centre of Judah and close to Bethlehem, David's birthplace.
At Hebron, David was anointed king over Judah (II Sam. 2:4). In the interim, Saul's commander Abner had crowned Saul's son Ishbaal (Ishbosheth) king of northern Israel at Mahanaim (II K. 2:8-10). After Saul's defeat and death, the Philistines appear to have recognized two separate vassal kingdoms in western Palestine: the area which David ruled from Hebron and the northern territory which acknowledged Ishbaal (2:9). After some desultory fighting, David defeated Ishbaal, apparently without any intervention by the Philistines. With Ishbaal dead, the northern tribes of Israel accepted David's leadership and, by the eighth year of his reign, he felt himself strong enough to make a bid for independence and the unity of his kingdom.

The citadel of Jebus (Jerusalem) at the time of King David

Between Judea and the larger part of the kingdom of Saul, lay the mountain enclave of Jerusalem still occupiedby the Canaanite clan of the Jebusites. While this remained, political and military control of a united Palestine was impossible. David attacked Jerusalem, the hero of the battle being his commander, Joab. By creating a diversion within the city he enabled David and his men to break through its defences and capture the stronghold.
Jerusalem became the personal territory of the king, held by right of conquest by David and his personal army. It was outside the general political organization of the country and was, quite literally, "the City of David", an urban city-state, in direct succession to the Jebusite regime. As such, it was not identified with the southern tribes like Hebron, nor with the northern state of Israel. Instead it was neutral ground from which David could reign over a united "People of Israel".
Judean and Israelite settlers joined the original inhabitants of Jerusalem, all of them acknowledging David as king and accepting his retinue of courtiers and mercenary soldiers. To put the seal on his position, David brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem in a great ceremony (II Sam. 6:1-19), thereby establishing his royal residence as the religious as well as the political and military capital of the new integrated state of Judah and Israel.

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THE STORY OF HEBRON

The foundation of this important and ancient city of Palestine is mentioned in the Old Testament in a unique manner: "And Hebron was built seven years before Zoan of Egypt" (Nu. 13:22). The date of the foundation of Zoan, which served as the capital of the Hyksos, can be calculated from extra-biblical sources as circa 1720 BC. It may therefore be assumed that Hebron was built at the beginning of the Middle Bronze (Canaanite) Age 11, which coincides with the Hyksos period. This estimate is also borne out by the frequent mention of Hebron in the Patriarchal Epics (Genesis 13:18; 35:27, and elsewhere), as the Patriarchal period also coincides with that of the Hyksos.

The Canaanite Period

Indications of Canaanite occupation of Hebron occur several times in the Old Testament. One such tradition is the account of Abraham's purchase of the Field of Machpelah in Hebron from Ephron the Hittite (Gn. 23:17-20). The Cave of Machpelah later became the burial-place of Abraham, Sarah, Isaac, Rebecca, Jacob and Leah.
The Old Testament also notes that Arba, father of the Anak clan, lived in Hebron and that the whole family was destroyed by Joshua when he conquered the Judean mountains (Jos. 11 :21-22). Kiryat Arba, the other name of Hebron, is thought to be derived from the name of the father of the Anakites. Talmudic tradition, however, attributes the name to the four patriarchal couples who were buried at Hebron, while modern research leans towards the view that "Arba" refers to the four separate quarters that make up Hebron. One of the quarters, Mamre, is mentioned in the Old Testament (Gn. 13:18; 35:27).
During the Conquest, King Hoham of Hebron joined the Southern Canaanite coalition led by Adoni-Zedek, King of Jerusalem. The coalition was defeated by Joshua at Gibeon, and Hebron was later awarded to Caleb ben Jephuneh (Jos. 10:3; 15:13; Jud. 1:20). In I Ch. 2:43, the names of four clans claiming descent from Caleb, 'father' of Hebron, are mentioned. Prof. B. Mazar favours the view that each of these clans lived in one of the quarters of Kiryat Arba.

During the Monarchy

Hebron reached its zenith in the early part of David's reign, serving as his capital for the first seven and a half years of his rule over Judea (II Sam. 2:1-4). Subsequently, Jerusalem was made the capital of the united kingdom. Hebron was also the site of David's anointing as King of all Israel (II Sam. 5:1-3). In deference to the tombs of the Patriarchs within its boundaries, Hebron continued to be regarded as a political and religious centre throughout the period of the monarchy. It became a Levitical city, i.e. a city for priests and Levites, as well as a haven of refuge.
It was at Hebron that Joab killed Abner ben-Ner, and Absalom raised the banner of revolt against his father (II Sam. 15:7-10). Rehoboam fortified Hebron, as well as many other places in the Judean mountains (II Ch. 11 :10). It also served as an important administrative centre in the later period of the monarchy, as can be gathered from the seals bearing the inscription "lmlk hbrn" = (to the king of Hebron) found stamped on jars in many sites in Judah.

Post-Exilic and Roman Period

Jews settled in Hebron after their return from the Babylonian Exile (Nehemiah 11:25). In the early period of the Second Temple, the Edomites occupied the southern part of Judea, including Hebron. The Hasmoneans later wrested it from them, destroyed it, and burned down its walls (Antiquities Book 12, 8:6). Herod erected many buildings in Hebron, including an imposing structure over the Cave of Machpelah with an outer wall modelled on that of the Temple Mount. It was made of huge blocks of stone, characteristic of the best Herodian masonry. Herod also erected other buildings in the Mamre quarter.

Huge blocks of stone formed the base of the Temple Mount, built by Herod the Great.
Similar stones were used at the Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron

Though Hebron's position in the Great War with Rome was insignificant, it continued to be revered because of the Patriarchal Tombs (Josephus, War of the Jews, Book 4, 9:7). It was occupied in 68 AD by Shimon Bar Giora, leader of the Zealots, and later razed by the Romans (War of the Jews, Bk. 4, 9:9).

Scant Archaeological Evidence

The present site of Hebron is on four hills: At Muhawer, Nimrah, Jabal al Ja'barah, and Jabal ar-Rumaidah. As yet (this was written in 1964) no systematic excavations of the town have been carried out; there is no unanimity as to the location of Hebron and its quarters in Old Testament times. Nevertheless, there is a strong presumption, based on a number of potsherds from the Iron Age, that the town first stood on Jabal ar-Rumaidah. Among the sites uncovered on that hill was one of a tomb containing pottery dating from the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 1700 BC), which seems to fit in with the literary materials bearing on the age of Hebron.

The Cave of Machpelah

According to tradition, the site of the Cave is at Haram el-Khalil in the eastern part of modern Hebron. The Cave, which is sacred to Moslems, is surrounded by an enclosure or "Haram" measuring sixty by thirty-three metres, and a building whose foundations date to the time of Herod. After the Arab conquest, the Cave of Machpelah was covered by a synagogue. Following the Crusades, the Arabs banned the entry of non-Moslems. Those few who have entered report the presence of a blocked cave under the sealed enclosure.

Mamre and Abraham's Tent

The place where Abraham pitched his tent (Gn. 13 :18; 18:1) is near Hebron. Apparently the location has been shifted a number of times because of its association with an ancient oak tree. During Herod's reign and for a long time thereafter, one such tree existed north of Hebron at Ramat-el-Khalil. The site of the tent at Mamre was probably fixed during this period, as Herod built a rectangular enclosure of magnificent masonry there at the same time that he erected the "Haram". The site was rebuilt as a pagan centre with a great market-place during the Hadrianic era. It was chiefly remembered by Jews as the place where, after the Bar Kochba War, thousands of their co-religionists were sold into slavery for less than the price of cattle.
A prominent church and monastery were later built in Hebron and the site became a centre of pilgrimage for Christians. The Arabic name of Hebron, "al-Khalil", meaning "the friend of God", is a significant indication of the reverence in which Abraham's name is held by Moslems. Abraham is revered as the original founder of the three great religious traditions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam.

See other fascinating links between
Archaeology and the Bible

Hebron Diary
17-18 January 1997
"A closer look at Hebron's 'Jewish community'"

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Historical semantics

Left: Israeli soldier in the Jewish Quarter of Hebron.

It is appropriate to look at the history of this group of individuals. Unfortunately, it isn't that easy, as we have to wade through some very unsubtle semantics. So I gave up and decided on a look at how some of that history is presented. For reference, there are two Israeli Web sources available on the Diary's Hebron Redeployment index. Let's have a look at some of the semantics, starting again with the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs as a source:

Hebron -- located south of Jerusalem in the Judean hills -- is home to approximately 120,000 Arabs, 500 Jews, and three Christians. An additional 6,000 Jews reside in the adjacent community of Kiryat Arba.

The first thing that struck me about the opening paragraph was the "three Christians" mentioned. What have they got to do with anything? The section finishes with an almost identical paragraph (emphasis mine):

Hebron has approximately 120,000 (Sunni Muslim) Arab residents. Hebron's Jewish population, comprised of 45 Jewish families and around 150 yeshiva students, is about 500. Hebron's three Christian residents are the custodians of the city's Russian church. An additional 6,000 Jews live in the adjacent community of Kiryat Arba.

Then I realised. The game being played here is a reversal of the argument I offered in the previous page, the argument that the city's population of 120,000 Palestinians is being forced to pander to the wishes of 400 individuals. In this scenario, the "three Christians" and the religion of "the Arabs" is introduced. This is a cunning tactic aimed at both Christian and liberal readers of the text. Later this is again underlined:

However, the restored Islamic (Mameluke) ascendancy was less tolerant than the pre-Crusader Islamic (Arab) regimes -- a 1266 decree barred Jews (and Christians) from entering the Tomb of the Patriarchs, allowing them only to ascend to the fifth, later the seventh, step outside the eastern wall.

The Christian is being prodded in the text to sympathise for the two religious minorities living in an intollerant sea of Muslims. After all, the Christian is reminded, Christianity's origins lie in Judaism. There are "Jewish families" and "Arab residents" in this scenario, the former phrase very familliar to Christians. "People like us".

The liberal is being targetted in a similar but slightly different way, based more in the arena of politics and humanism than religious sympathy and best summed up by a headline from a Jerusalem Post editorial about Hebron of 15 November 1996 that read, "No ethnic cleansing". The plight of the Bosnian Muslims and the Rwandans has drilled the phrase into everyone's consciousness over the last few years in a million news reports.

Psychological perceptions

Right: Beit Hadssah and Beit Hesed Le'Avraham, site of "an exhibition of the history of the Jewish community in Hebron and the museum in memory of the victims of the 1929 massacre of Jews in Hebron".

This is where we get into the real dynamics of the Jewish community's psychology in Hebron. Let us look at two consecutive paragraphs from the Israeli Foreign Ministry's text, almost as partisan as the settlers own website. Note both my emphasis and the shift from ancient to recent history:

Hebron is the site of the oldest Jewish community in the world, which dates back to Biblical times. The Book of Genesis relates that Abraham purchased the field where the Tomb of the Patriarchs is located as a burial place for his wife Sarah. According to Jewish tradition, the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and the Matriarchs Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah are buried in the Tomb.

Hebron has a long and rich Jewish history. It was one of the first places where the Patriarch Abraham resided after his arrival in Canaan. King David was anointed in Hebron, where he reigned for seven years. One thousand years later, during the first Jewish revolt against the Romans, the city was the scene of extensive fighting. Jews lived in Hebron almost continuously throughout the Byzantine, Arab, Mameluke, and Ottoman periods. It was only in 1929 -- as a result of a murderous Arab pogrom in which 67 Jews were murdered and the remainder were forced to flee -- that the city became temporarily "free" of Jews. After the 1967 Six-Day War, the Jewish community of Hebron was re-established. It has grown to include a range of religious and educational institutions.

Clearly Hebron is meaningful in the Jewish faith. Clearly the 1929 massacre was a crime against humanity. Yet the language emphasised above evokes a very different and a particularly Jewish meaning. We're back to "pograms", the Yiddish word referring to the organised Russian massacres of Jews. We're back to "free of Jews" or "Judenrein", the German word referring to one of the key goals of the Holocaust. Both words referring to two incomparably larger series of events in the Jewish consciousness.

These events should be important to Jews particularly, as time passes and revisionist historians increasingly find audiences who never lived the history easier to turn on to lurid Jewish conspiracy theories. Yet, these events do not apply to the reality of Palestine today. The Holocaust is precisely the kind of arguement that is a guarantee of unclarity in today's Arab-Israeli conflict, particularly in the case of Hebron. Why? Because the issue is not that Hebron's 400 Jews and 3 Christians need protection from tens of thousands of Muslims. It's the other way around.

The power dynamics that have existed in Hebron during the period of Israeli occupation (1967-1997) have clearly been in the favour of the State of Israel and its "representatives" in Hebron. The 12-day curfew only on Palestinian life after the February 1994 Hebron massacre of Palestinians, land confiscations, and the ridiculously biased partition plan for the Hebron Mosque are the kinds of examples of how misguided is this belief that Hebron's settlers are about to be massacred by Palestinians. Sure there are many Palestinians that would love to get their hands on a settler in a dark alley, but is this not the result of the humiliations experienced and witnessed on a regular basis from the IDF and settler population, rather than some unfathomable hatred of Jews in general?

Jerusalem Post journalist John Immanuel writes in a 17 January 1997 article, entitled "Sons of Abraham", that:

"If the Holocaust influences the mentality of even the most liberal Israeli, Hebron Jews have pickled themselves in it... Settler relations with Arabs are inbued with deep distrust and contempt. Nowhere is this more evident than among the children. In Tel Rumeida, they live inches from each other, but it is obvious who is more indoctrinated against the other. It is always the Jewish child who rebuffs the Arab child that wants to play... Even if Zionism were viewed favorably by Hebron Arabs, they would still resent the overweening selfrighteousness among settlers they see in Hebron."

Which brings it back to the issue of realities. Sure there are Palestinians in Hebron who are violently opposed to the presence of the settlement in their midst, but as Immanuel goes on to say:

"Few Hebron Arabs want them and fewer consider it reasonable that the IDF remain in control of 20% of the city just because 400 Jews choose to live there and not one kilometer up the road among 6,000 other Jews in Kiryat Arba."